Which of the following was NOT a factor in the Japanese postwar "economic miracle"?
a. Massive aid from the United States enabled Japan to rebuild quickly after the war.
b. Japanese products were not barred from the U.S. market.
c. Restrictions imposed on Japanese defense spending enabled them to channel much of their Gross National Product (GNP) into economic development.
d. Abundant reserves of oil and gas fueled postwar industrialization.