Why did African Americans form early 20th-century groups like the NAACP and the Urban League?
a. They were shut out of already existing groups that had urged Progressive reforms.
b. They believed that organizing would give them the strategic strength to fight discriminatory practice.
c. Their churches were reluctant to enter battles over social reform.
d. They noted the success of the Jewish Anti-Defamation League.
(The answer is not A.)