The development of settled agriculture in Africa, the Americas, and Europe was influenced by both innovation and diffusion, but the extent to which each played a role varied among these regions.
Africa:
Innovation: In many parts of Africa, the development of settled agriculture can be attributed to indigenous innovation. African societies independently domesticated crops like millet, sorghum, yams, and various tubers. The tsetse fly, which restricted the use of cattle in some regions, encouraged agricultural innovation.
Diffusion: While indigenous innovation was crucial, there was also diffusion of agricultural practices and crops between regions within Africa. Trade networks and interactions with neighboring societies facilitated the spread of knowledge and crops.
The Americas:
Innovation: Indigenous peoples in the Americas independently developed agriculture, notably the cultivation of maize (corn), beans, squash, and potatoes. This innovation allowed for the rise of advanced civilizations such as the Aztecs, Maya, and Incas.
Diffusion: Limited diffusion occurred within the Americas, but the overall emphasis was on independent innovation. While some crops like maize and potatoes diffused within the Americas, the major agricultural innovations were the result of indigenous development.
Europe:
Innovation: In Europe, the development of settled agriculture was significantly influenced by innovation. The shift from hunter-gatherer societies to farming communities marked a major innovation. Wheat, barley, and other cereal crops were domesticated, and new farming techniques were developed.
Diffusion: Diffusion played a role in Europe as well, especially in the spread of agricultural knowledge from the Middle East and Asia Minor through trade and interactions. The knowledge of cultivation and animal husbandry techniques diffused and contributed to agricultural development.
In summary, while all three regions—Africa, the Americas, and Europe—witnessed significant agricultural innovation by indigenous societies, the extent of diffusion's influence varied. Africa and Europe saw a mix of innovation and diffusion, with indigenous development being crucial. In the Americas, innovation played a dominant role, with limited diffusion. These differences highlight the complex interplay of factors that contributed to the development of settled agriculture in different parts of the world