Final answer:
To determine biological sex, features such as the pelvis, skull, and long bones are used. For age estimation in subadults, growth plate fusion and dental development are examined. Transitional analysis and the morphology of the pelvis and skull are used to estimate age in adults.
Step-by-step explanation:
Biological sex: The features of the skeleton that are commonly used to determine biological sex include the pelvis, skull, and long bones. For example, the pelvis in females is typically wider and shallower, while in males it is narrower and deeper. The skull also exhibits sexual dimorphism, with males tending to have more pronounced brow ridges and larger mastoid processes. Additionally, certain bones, such as the femur and humerus, can be used to estimate sex based on their size and shape.
Age in subadults: In subadults (those younger than twenty years), age can be estimated by examining the fusion of growth plates known as epiphyses and the development and eruption of teeth. The sequence of fusion and dental development can provide insights into the age of the individual and their stage of skeletal maturation.
Age in adults: In adults, transitional analysis is used to estimate age based on skeletal age markers. The pubic symphysis, iliac auricular surface, and cranial suture closure are commonly analyzed to determine age. The morphology of certain parts of the pelvis and skull can also be used to estimate age. However, traditional age estimation methods may have biases and limitations, leading to underestimations of older adult ages.